US naval power in the Pacific
Introduction - The Americans enter
With the fall of Singapore dawned a new age for Australian foreign policy. Prime Minister John Curtin announced that 'without any inhibitions of any kind… I make quite clear that Australia looks to America, free of any pangs as to our traditional links of kinship with the United Kingdom'.
Britain's inability to defend her prized South East Asian possession Singapore, proved to the Australian government that Britain could not provide Australia with the protection she needed. With Singapore no longer an obstacle to the Japanese advance, it seemed that Australia could be the next port of call - an invasion may be imminent.
Japan had attacked the American naval forces at Pearl Harbor in December 1941 and brought the might of America into the War. It was this might - the seemingly endless supplies of troops, weapons, planes, vessels and enthusiasm - that Curtin sought to acquire by opening Australia's borders to the Americans in late 1941.
It was the question of invasion and the recognition that Australia had to seek defence in places other than Britain that led Curtin to seek a relationship with the Americans.
The Americans proved to be the decisive factor in winning the war by organising an Allied campaign against the Japanese force in the Pacific. The Australians played an important, if not central, role in this campaign.
'Thank God, the Yanks are here'
When the first American naval convoy arrived in Australian waters at Brisbane two days before Christmas in 1941, the Australians met them with enthusiasm. See image 1
The Australian people, however, did not know much about America beyond the glitzy Hollywood actors and actress who graced their screens at the cinema.
It took little time for Prime Minister John Curtin to appeal to America for assistance in the Pacific struggle. In an emotional appeal published in the Melbourne Herald, Curtin asked the Americans to help.
The Americans were not moved by Curtin's emotional appeal but by the pragmatic importance of Australia as a naval base from which the Americans could launch a counterattack against the Japanese. Upon America's entrance to War, the US government planned to use Australia as a naval and air base.
The pro-American stance adopted by Curtin was not shared by all Australians. The Chief of General Staff, Vernon Sturdee was not impressed by the American troops in any way.
He pointed to an American 'lack of war experience in this war, completely different organisation, different weapons, equipment, and ammunition, which complicate maintenance, no reserves of ammunition or equipment in Australia, and temperamental differences in troops and differences in training'.
Some Americans were wary of the Australians. A few were unsure of Australia's dedication to the war.
However, most people in both countries were keen to get the war underway. Felix Frankfurter of the US Supreme Court described the relationship 'being a deep feeling of kinship between our two democratic peoples, there is here the most sympathetic understanding of your viewpoint because of the realisation of immediate common interests'
The early months of 1942 saw a co-operative relationship form between the United States and Australia.
Chairman of the American Joint Chiefs of Staff, General George Marshall gave the order for more ground forces to be sent to Australia and President Roosevelt ordered General Douglas MacArthur, currently besieged on Bataan Peninsula in the Philippines, to go to Australia. MacArthur arrived on 17 March 1942 and became a symbol of American determination and culture.
He is, however, one of history's most controversial figures - he assumed all credit for the Pacific victories, yet he was a great and determined commander and soldier.
He had been a distinguished soldier in World War I. In World War II he was in command of US Forces in the Far East. The Commonwealth government agreed that MacArthur be appointed Supreme Commander of all the Allied forces in the South West Pacific Area.
The Australian press was impressed with MacArthur. The Truth newspaper published in Melbourne called him 'the greatest tonic we have had in this war. His presence is an added stimulant'.
He was not, though, very much impressed with the war effort that Australia had put forward - there was a meagre supply of troops, poor aircraft and naval vessels. He enjoyed the publicity and attention the Australians paid to him.
Relations between Curtin and MacArthur were close, despite having come from very different backgrounds. Curtin virtually gave complete power for strategic and defence policy-making to MacArthur.
Not everyone was won over by MacArthur - Blamey did not like him because he tended to ignore Australia's contributions to the War.
Although MacArthur claimed credit and responsibility for organising the Allied forces into a counter attack against the Japanese, his contribution was just one of many factors which brought about a change in the tide of war.
The arrival of MacArthur coincided with the build-up of a large number of American troops and equipment in preparation for a Pacific assault, the return of the AIF from the Middle East, and the creation of an Allied command system that co-ordinated the Pacific assault.
MacArthur planned a policy of 'island-hopping' and 'mopping up'. He would render Japanese strongholds useless by seizing smaller islands which could be used as air bases. Before MacArthur could carry the fight to New Guinea, the Allies needed to control the sea. See image 2
US naval power: Japan's primary objective
The bombing of the US fleet at Pearl Harbor had been intended to render American naval power useless. For a brief period in March and April 1942, the Japanese were superior in the Pacific.
They took the initiative and planned to sever the lines of communication between Australia and the United States by seizing Port Moresby in Papua, and Tulagi in the southern Solomon Islands.
These strategically positioned areas would allow the Japanese to launch air raids on the Australian mainland and further hinder the American navy.
After disabling the fleet in Australia, the Japanese navy would then strike across the Pacific to destroy the United States Pacific Fleet. The plan of attack was to island hop across the Pacific - Attu, Midway, Wake, Gilbert, Marshall, New Caledonia, Fiji and the Samoan islands.
With naval superiority, the Japanese would have few obstacles in achieving this ultimate mission.
The Battle of the Coral Sea
The first part of Japan's campaign across the Pacific involved the invasion of Port Moresby in Operation Mo. The Americans were aware of Japanese plans from intercepted code transmissions.
American Admiral Chester Nimitz, Commander in Chief of the Pacific Fleet, rallied the American fleet to counter the Japanese advance.
At 11 am on 7 May, 1942, the Americans and Japanese fought in the Battle of the Coral Sea, surrounding the Solomons. Japanese and American aircraft attacked each other's ships and carriers in a battle that lasted two days.
The battle was costly for both the Japanese and the Americans. Although the battle ended without a decisive victory, it delayed the Japanese invasion of Port Moresby.
Australians were about to make their mark on the Kokoda Trail. The Americans launched Operation Tulsa which involved the occupation of an airfield in the Buna area of Papua.
The Japanese had the same airfield in mind and landed in an amphibious assault. They were driven back by the Allies.
Therefore, the Japanese changed strategy and intended to take Port Moresby by marching through Papua via the Kokoda Trail. Australian troops fought along the pass, successfully delaying the Japanese advance through Papua.
Battle of Midway
The Japanese navy was seeking ways to stop American naval power. Japanese Admiral Yamamoto identified the American carriers as the significant factor in America's naval strength and planned to destroy them.
On 5 May 1942, the Japanese invaded and occupied the Western Aleutians in the north Pacific and Midway Island. These islands were crucial bases for Japan's advance in the Pacific, and as air bases for further air raids on the American fleet. Midway was the outermost island in the Hawaiian chain.
In another costly engagement, the Americans attacked the Japanese navy at Midway Island. The American carrier USS Yorktown was sunk. 132 aircraft and over 300 men were killed. The Battle of Midway revealed the power of carriers as first-strike weapons and revealed American mastery of naval warfare.
The losses severely depleted Japan's naval forces. Four heavy Japanese carriers were destroyed. Although the navy was sizeable, the economy was struggling under the pressure and the heavy carriers were important.
The Battle of Midway was a turning point in the War. The Japanese navy was no longer capable of dominating the southern waters of the Pacific. The apparently imminent threat to Australia was dissipated. See image 3
In July 1942, the American Joint Chiefs of Staff ordered the first Allied offensive in the Pacific War.
The first objective was the seizure of Santa Crus, Tulagi, and the southern Solomons, including Guadalcanal. The second objective was the occupation of the Solomons and northern New Guinea. The third was the occupation of Lae in Papua.
The ability to achieve these objectives lay with the power of the US Navy.
Battle of Guadalcanal
The Japanese remained determined to cut the lines of communications between Australia and the United States. They made another attempt at Guadalcanal, an island in the southern Solomons.
Australian involvement in this battle was minimal but important. The ships HMAS Australia, HMAS Canberra, and HMAS Hobart participated, but the HMAS Canberra was sunk.
A critical role played by Australians was performed by the coast watchers stationed on the Solomons. These coastwatchers provided the Allies with detailed information about Japanese activities in the region.
The majority of fighting was done by United States Marine Corps soldiers, led by Admiral Ernest J. King.
The Japanese took Guadalcanal on 7 July, 1942.
19 000 US Marines occupied the beaches of Guadalcanal a month later on 7 August.
There was no resistance to the invasion until 9 August when Japanese planes attacked the Allies. There was a major naval battle between the Japanese and Americans on 12-16 November, 1942. The Japanese launched a counter attack and attempted to dislodge the marines from their foothold on the island.
However, the airstrip was under Allied control. The Japanese could not gain an advantage during their attacks. The Japanese stationed on the island were eventually taken prisoner. Allied success in this battle was primarily due to the use of carrier aircraft and other surface ships.
The naval losses sustained by the Japanese navy revealed the disparity in Japanese and American navies. The American navy was more powerful and more effectively used in battle. Further, the Americans were able to co-ordinate land, sea, and air forces in one attack. See animation
