Australia's cultural links

Introduction

Many claim that Australia's culture is a blend of global influences-the cross-fertilisation of cultures by the dominant political powers of Great Britain, the United States, and emerging neighbours in Asia. Others argue that separate and distinct Australian cultures have existed for a long time. Aboriginal cultures dating back thousands of years took many forms, with over 100 separate languages, and with widespread social networks making it necessary for Aboriginal people to be multilingual to communicate. Aboriginal people also expressed themselves in music, dance, kinship systems, art forms and ceremonies differing dramatically between regions, some of which are still in existence. A separate British-influenced Australian culture is also said to have existed since the mid-1800s. Commonly recognised examples of Australian culture have included the following:

• Poets: Henry Lawson, Banjo Paterson, C.J. Dennis
  
  
• Authors: Miles Franklin, Mary Grant Bruce, Rolf Boldrewood
  
  
• Painters and artists: Arthur Streeton, Frederick McCubbin, Sidney Nolan
  
  
• Architecture: Federation style, Queenslander style
  
  
• Music: Waltzing Matilda, Slim Dusty, The Seekers
  
  
• Heroes and heroines: Ned Kelly, Don Bradman, the ANZACs
  
  
• Australian way of life: Bush barbeques, Australian Rules Football, Surf Lifesaving Clubs
  
  
• Cultural icons: Vegemite, Akubra hats, gold prospectors, shearers, swagmen
  
  
• Entertainers and Characters: Ginger Meggs, Paul Hogan, Dame Edna Everage and Sir Les Patterson (Barry Humphries), Mick Molloy

It could be argued that both of the above views are valid-that there are unique Aboriginal and Australian cultures and that Australia has ongoing cultural links with other countries that have a significant impact on Australia and the rest of the world. It could further be argued that, despite the enduring nature of many of the images of Australian culture in the above examples, Australian culture is continuously evolving in response to external and internal cultural trends. This chapter discusses these trends and provides a brief history of Australia's cultural development. Australian culture since the end of 'White Australia' in the 1970s will be looked at in the context of the regional economic and cultural integration of Australia's tourism, technology, communications, sport, education, employment and multicultural policy.

Australia's cultural development

Australia has been influenced by migrant cultures from over 30 countries but of these the strongest cultural influences up until the Second World War were British and Irish, with the highest percentage of immigrants into Australia being of British or Irish origin. Australia's earliest national and cultural identity developed from these British, Irish and other European origins. Its culture is argued to have grown from these origins and passed through the following 'stages' in Australian history:

• Colonial beginnings (1788 to 1800s): settlement of Australia, colonial dependence
  
  
• Gold rush era (1850s): increasing British and European migration, miners and other workers strikes against colonial authorities, greater self-government within the British Empire
  
  
• Rise of Australian nationalism (1880s to 1890s): colonial citizens and governments call for trade protectionism, 'white' isolation from Asia and for federation of colonies
  
  
• Federation (1901): colonies combine to form Commonwealth of Australia, White Australia Policy adopted
  
  
• World War One (1914 to 1918): birth of the ANZAC legend, Gallipoli and other European campaigns
  
  
• Depression era (1930s): world economic and political instability, increased trade protection, fears of Japanese expansion
  
  
• World War Two (1939 to 1945): threat of Japanese invasion, European and Asia-Pacific war involvement, strengthening of strategic ties with the Untied States
  
  
• Menzies era (1950s to 1960s): post-war economic boom, increasing non-British European migration, community becomes receptive to change and exposed to wider cultural values, rise of suburban lifestyle
  
  
• End of the White Australia Policy (1970s to the present): increasing non-European migration, strengthened cultural, political and economic ties with South-East Asia, Japan and Asia-Pacific, improved technological transport and communication reduces Australia's isolation from the globe

Contemporary culture links

In addition to its shared past with nations like Great Britain and the United States, Australia's cultural similarities have reinforced links with other countries that are ongoing and not simply historical. These similarities have prompted the argument that Australia is a multicultural nation. Multiculturalism is a term used to denote a society containing a variety of different ethnic cultures. The term also refers to accepted official policy of Australian governments since the 1970s, as previous policies of integration and assimilation had failed. It is argued that large-scale non-British immigration after 1945, the settling into ghettos of Greeks and Italians holding onto languages, foods, music, religion and customs, and entry of more non-Europeans meant that multiculturalism was a policy forced upon the Australian government by the reality of modern Australia.

More broadly, cultural interests in other countries appear in Australia's overseas television and radio broadcasts, print media, and in the number of Australians visiting, working and being educated overseas. The country is in turn visited frequently by foreign artists, musicians and sporting teams that have a considerable influence on contemporary culture. This is further reflected in overseas trends in dress and entertainment that are taken up in everyday Australian cultural life.

Tourism

Australia's cultural links to its region are reflected in the number of Australians travelling overseas and, in turn, the thousands of overseas tourists visiting Australia each year. Australia receives roughly 0.6% of the world's tourists, with tourism being its single largest source of foreign exchange dollars. Tourism contributes 10.5% to the GDP and employs 12% of the Australian workforce. The Asia-Pacific region is Australia's fastest growing source of tourists with significant increases of tourists over the period 2004-2005. These sources include China with an increase of 27%, Hong Kong 13%, and South Korea and Taiwan 10% over the same period. Japan is its single largest tourism market, generating $2.06 billion in revenue in 2004. Tourist numbers from Europe have also increased, predominantly from the United Kingdom but also from Italy, France and Ireland with significant increases.

Technology and communications

Australian technological developments are found throughout the world and take on many forms, designed to tackle regional and global problems. These forms primarily include communications technology, in which Australia is a recognised world leader. Examples of this range from the Australian development of voice transmission for the Internet, to the invention of the bionic ear, black box flight recorder, and inventions that reflect cultural interests, such as 'race cam' sports televising for car and motor bike racing, and 'stump cam' for cricket.

Sport

Sport is considered by some to be a national 'religion' or 'obsession' in Australia with a predominant effect on the culture, value systems and forms of expression of Australians. In 1964, Donald Horne suggested that Australia's success at competitive international sport was even considered an important part of its foreign policy. Similar comments followed the announcement that Sydney would host the 2000 Olympic Games, when New South Wales premier, and president of the Sydney 2000 Games Bid, John Fahey, said that its Olympic involvement may 'perhaps teach our youth to take on the world and do their best'.

There have been recent concerns about lower levels of sporting involvement, particularly in the decline of fitness levels for children and the rise of obesity. However, Australia still has high sport participation rates. Currently 4.1 million Australians are members of national sports organisations, while another 3.4 million regularly play informal recreational sport. Approximately 39% of the Australian public are active in sport at some level, and this compares favourably with international competitors.

In addition to the 2000 Olympics which was Australia's most prominent international sporting link, other links have included the Commonwealth Games, the World Rugby 7s and the Commonwealth Bank Cycling Classic held annually in NSW, as well as both Test series and One Day International series cricket, international soccer, rugby union and Tri-Nation rugby union tests played between Australia, New Zealand, South Africa and the UK. Australia also has a competitive high profile in its international boxing, cycling, golf, middle-distance running, motor cycle racing, pole vaulting, swimming and tennis. Regional sporting links have included the Asia Pacific Games and Pan Pacific ('Pan Pacs') swimming meet.

Education and employment

Australia's regional links in education are reflected in the many international students it attracts, numbering more than 140 000 international students annually. More than 90% of these come from Asia-Pacific countries. Roughly 54 000 international students enrol in universities, 38 000 in vocational education, 36 000 in English language colleges and 15 000 in schools. Regional links in employment are also strong, with Australia's highly educated workforce, economic and political stability and cultural diversity making it a competitive base for the operations of overseas firms. Australia also has more highly protected industries and higher minimum wages than its regional neighbours, and is therefore a prime target for migrants in the region seeking a better quality of life through employment.