Geographical process

Introduction

The case study chosen for this topic explores issues surrounding uranium mining in Kakadu National Park, located in the Alligator Rivers region of Australia's Northern Territory. From the moment intentions to build uranium mines within this World Heritage Area (WHA) were first proposed, the topic has attracted a considerable amount of debate both domestically and internationally and raised a great deal of controversy among many different stakeholders and interest groups. In fact, the campaign to stop mining in Kakadu represents one of Australia's longest-running environmental, Indigenous rights and anti-nuclear movements.

Before analysing the viewpoints of these different interest groups and assessing the implications of the mining proposal for sustainability, social justice and equity, it is important to give a brief introduction to the environmental and cultural significance of the region and the geographical processes involved in uranium mining, including economic considerations.

Kakadu National Park

Kakadu National Park is located 200 kilometres east of Darwin and spans an area of approximately 19 800 square kilometres. It is Australia's largest terrestrial national park and is famous the world over for possessing exceptional features of both natural and cultural beauty. From its collection of ancient Indigenous artworks and abundant array of rare species, to its pristine wetlands, unique landscapes and complex ecosystems, Kakadu truly is a remarkable part of the world. Inscribed on the World Heritage List in 1981 for both its natural and cultural values, Kakadu was the first place in the world to be listed under both categories. See image 1

Apart from its wealth of cultural and environmental features, Kakadu is extremely rich in terms of uranium ore reserves, large quantities of which were discovered there in the 1960s and 1970s. Despite the fact that proposals to mine the area for its uranium prompted immediate public uproar, it was not long before mining companies announced their plans to begin excavating.

Environmental and natural resource issues aside, Kakadu is also an extremely significant part of Australia for its legal and political history. It formed the topic of Australia's first ever Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) in 1977 (refer to Topic 1, Chapter 1) and it was one of the first areas where an Aboriginal claim to traditional ownership of land was made under the Aboriginal Land Rights Act (Northern Territory) 1976 (Cth).

The mining industry in Australia

The process of uranium mining

Uranium is a radioactive metal found beneath the Earth's surface. Radium and radon are other radioactive elements also found in uranium ore. When they are in their natural state (under the ground) these elements are not radioactive. It is only when they are separated from one another during milling processes that their radioactive energy is released. While not all radioactive substances are dangerous, some can affect cell tissues and therefore pose a threat to living things that are exposed to them.

From its original ore state, uranium is crushed and ground (a process known as 'milling') and then dissolved in sulphuric acid (a process known as 'leaching') in a solvent extraction plant. After these processes are complete, the pure uranium is separated from the other substances found in the ore and becomes what is known as 'uranium oxide' or 'yellow cake'. The remaining waste materials are referred to as 'tailings' and must be placed into special dams or pits because they can also be radioactive. See image 3

Once extracted, uranium is used primarily as a source of nuclear energy in nuclear power plants and for some medical purposes (such as X-ray technology). When combined with plutonium, uranium is an essential component in the production of nuclear weapons (or atomic bombs).

Australia is one of the world's largest producers of uranium and holds an estimated 40 per cent of global uranium ore reserves. Energy Resources Australia Ltd. (ERA), the mining company that holds the leases for the Ranger and Jabiluka mine sites, currently provides eleven per cent of the global supply of uranium oxide. This is primarily exported to countries in Asia, Europe and North America.

Environmental implications

No doubt the largest environmental implication of uranium mining is the potential for contamination to occur. Water discharged from uranium mines can contain traces of radioactive materials. The disposal of tailings (radioactive waste products) can also lead to radioactive contamination of downstream water and habitats if the dams and pits used to dispose of them are faulty. At the Ranger mine, both of these methods of tailings disposal have been found unreliable in the past and radioactive contaminants have leaked, posing a serious threat to nearby ecosystems. In May 2000, ERA conceded that two million litres of contaminated water had leaked into the Magella Creek during the summer wet season of 1999-2000. The problem of resulting contamination from these leaks is particularly concerning in tropical areas like Kakadu, which is characterised by extreme weather patterns including monsoonal rains, cyclones and floods. See image 4

The destruction of habitats and maintenance of biodiversity are other issues related to uranium mining. The construction of mines requires that roads and facilities (such as processing and enriching plants) also need to be built. This significantly changes the physical landscape of the mine site and its surrounds. The rehabilitation of areas disrupted by mining is another issue of environmental concern after mining has stopped.

Human health and safety is another highly controversial facet of uranium mining. It is believed, however, that uranium only really poses a threat to humans if substantial amounts enter the bloodstream though excessive inhalation, digestion or some other method of absorption. The final issue of concern related to uranium mining is its contribution to nuclear weapons and the controversial nuclear testing programs of some nations. Its potential to cause catastrophic damage on a global scale is well known.

Cultural implications

The sacred area of Kakadu holds unique Indigenous heritage values for the Australian Aboriginal people and boasts the largest collection of ancient rock art in the world. Some of the earliest records of human existence in Australia can be found within the Ranger and Jabiluka mineral leases. These cultural artefacts prove that the Mirrar Gundjeihmi clan, the original inhabitants of these areas, have occupied this part of Kakadu for 40 000 years at the very least. While presenting a clear threat to the historic cultural values of the area, mining in Kakadu also has implications for the way in which these people currently live their life and for the ongoing cultural development of future generations.

History of mining in Kakadu: the Ranger and Jabiluka mine sites

By the mid-1970s four substantial deposits of uranium had been identified at what are now referred to as the Koongarra, Nabarlek, Ranger and Jabiluka sites. While the announcements to mine for uranium at all four of these sites has received fervent public opposition, proposals to mine at the last two have invoked the most intense reactions and generated the most domestic and international debate over Kakadu to date.

It was in the late 1970s that the Australian Government first approved proposals put forth by mining companies to construct mining and milling facilities in the Kakadu region. Under the management of ERA and with the approval of the Liberal/Country Party government of Malcolm Fraser, mining commenced at the Ranger mine site in 1980. North of the Ranger mine is the Jabiluka site, to which a second mining company, Pancontinental Ltd, was granted approval to mine by the same government in 1982. The following year, however, this approval was suspended by Prime Minister Bob Hawke of the newly-elected Labor Government and Jabiluka remained untouched for over a decade.

Controversy began to seriously erupt again in 1996 when the Liberal/National Party Coalition gained power and the incumbent, Prime Minister John Howard, announced renewed plans to mine at Jabiluka. By this stage ERA, having replaced Pancontinental as the key stakeholder for management of the mine, had already completed a new EIA for the area, which was approved by the Commonwealth Government in 1997. The political and legal decision-making processes which eventually enabled the re-opening of Jabiluka in 1998, along with the reactions of different groups to these decisions, will be explored in the other chapters of this case study.

Despite continual federal government support for mining companies during this period of controversy in the late 1990s, widespread opposition to Jabiluka did significantly alter the course of land management. Although mining did take place for a short period of time in 1998, the uranium ore was never processed and operations have since been suspended. The Jabiluka site is now under a long-term care and maintenance management regime. See animation 1

Economic considerations

Since mining began at Ranger in the early 1980s, ERA has paid over $200 million in royalties for use of the land that Ranger mine occupies. Leasing of the Jabiluka site has cost ERA approximately $7 million since it was purchased in 1991. Under provisions of the Aboriginal Land Rights Act (Northern Territory) 1976 (Cth) this money is paid to the federal government and then distributed through administrative bodies to various Aboriginal communities in the Northern Territory.